Verify any claim · lenz.io
“Sex hormone levels are associated with crime victimization rates.”
The conclusion
Available research does not substantiate a general association between sex hormone levels and crime victimization rates. Some studies connect victimization with subsequent hormonal changes or examine hormones in trauma responses, providing a narrow biological link. However, the strongest victim-focused evidence mainly concerns cortisol, a stress hormone, while testosterone research largely concerns offending or aggression. No cited study shows that baseline sex hormones predict victimization frequency or risk.
Caveats
- Low confidence conclusion.
- The claim reverses the likely direction of evidence: victimization may alter hormones, rather than hormones predicting victimization.
- Cortisol, central to much of the victim-focused evidence, is a stress hormone rather than a sex hormone.
- Research on offending, aggression, or responses after trauma cannot establish crime victimization rates.
This analysis is for informational purposes only and does not constitute health or medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional before making health-related decisions.
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Sources
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This systematic review aimed to assess changes in salivary hormonal biomarker levels among individuals experiencing various forms of violence, with particular emphasis on cortisol. … The conducted meta-analysis demonstrated slightly lower morning cortisol levels and significantly elevated evening cortisol levels in abused individuals.## Abstract Each form of violence constitutes a significant social problem and presents a diagnostic challenge, particularly from the perspective of medico-legal assessment. Moreover, as a stressor, violence influences the levels of biomarkers that can be measured in saliva, an easily accessible material for testing. This systematic review aimed to assess changes in salivary hormonal biomarker levels among individuals experiencing various forms of violence, with particular emphasis on cortisol. Following the established inclusion and exclusion criteria, 22 studies were included. Most studies originated from Europe and the USA and encompassed both children and adults. Cases of interpersonal violence were analyzed, particularly physical, sexual, and psychological violence, including bullying. Based on the analysis of the included studies, trends in alterations of salivary cortisol levels and its diurnal secretion profile were identified. The conducted meta-analysis demonstrated slightly lower morning cortisol levels and significantly elevated evening cortisol levels in abused individuals. Further research is necessary to precisely characterize the impact of violence on salivary cortisol levels to evaluate the potential use of this parameter for the objective, real-time diagnosis of violent events. Such advancements would facilitate the implementation of victim care programs and enhance the detection of violence. ## Authors
While strong conclusions await replication, the current results indicated that hormones and ANS activity interact to influence risk for impulsive and violent criminal behavior.## Discussion While strong conclusions await replication, the current results indicated that hormones and ANS activity interact to influence risk for impulsive and violent criminal behavior. Specifically, the positive association between testosterone and impulsive and violent crime became statistically significant as basal ANS activity decreased below its mean. This association was particularly robust for the interaction of testosterone with baseline heart rate (Table 2; Supplemental Table S2). …
In the present study, we are focusing on the combination of testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) as a potential moderator of adolescents’ aggressive responses when they are victimized by peers.… However, other studies found that sex did not moderate the relationship between victimization and perpetration (Royuela-Colomer et al., Reference Royuela-Colomer, Calvete, Gámez-Guadix and Orue2018). The general aggression model proposes that biological variables may also influence aggression reactions. In the present study, we are focusing on the combination of testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) as a potential moderator of adolescents’ aggressive responses when they are victimized by peers. ## Testosterone and aggressive behavior
Several observational studies suggest that PTSD-related hyperarousal is most apparent among women with low endogenous E2, or during lower-E2 phases of the ovarian cycle including the early follicular and early luteal phases ( 35 , 36 ) .It is as yet unclear whether trauma and posttraumatic stress potentiate the effects of E2 on threat neurocircuitry. Amygdala reactivity to threat cues is a risk factor for stress vulnerability ( 29 -32 ) that can predate trauma exposure and predict future PTSD and internalizing ( 11 , 13 , 33 , 34 ) . One determinant of amygdala hyperreactivity may be sensitivity of this region to changes in E2, or changes in the inhibitory input to the amygdala from the vmPFC. Several observational studies suggest that PTSD-related hyperarousal is most apparent among women with low endogenous E2, or during lower-E2 phases of the ovarian cycle including the early follicular and early luteal phases ( 35 , 36 ) . No study has examined the effects of exogenous E2 on amygdala reactivity among trauma-exposed participants. ## Results
The present work provides evidence that a woman who experienced violence through physical and/or sexual abuse during childhood and/or adolescence has a greater risk of developing MRMDs in adulthood.… Finally, five articles (publication years 2014, 2013, 2012, 2007, and 2003) were included in the systematic review and submitted to a meta-analysis. Results. Results indicate that having been exposed to physical and/or sexual violence in childhood and/or adolescence increases 1.99 times the risk of experiencing MRMDs in adulthood in comparison with women who did not experience that type of violence (odds ratio [OR] = 1.99; 95% confidence interval [1.58, 2.51]). Discussion and conclusion. The present work provides evidence that a woman who experienced violence through physical and/or sexual abuse during childhood and/or adolescence has a greater risk of developing MRMDs in adulthood. ## BACKGROUND
Violence Victimization Predicts Body Mass Index one Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Moderator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator S Assari C H Caldwell J L Abelson M Zimmerman Journal of Urban Health 96 2019 Assari S, Caldwell CH, Abelson JL, Zimmerman M. Violence Vic- timization Predicts Body Mass Index one Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Mod- erator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator. Journal of Ur- ban Health. 2019; 96: 632-643.Abuse and subclinical cardiovascular disease among midlife women: the study of women's health across the nation R C Thurston Y Chang C A Derby J T Bromberger S D Harlow I Janssen Stroke 45 2014 Thurston RC, Chang Y, Derby CA, Bromberger JT, Harlow SD, Janssen I, et al. Abuse and subclinical cardiovascular disease among midlife women: the study of women's health across the nation. Stroke. 2014; 45: 2246-2251. Violence Victimization Predicts Body Mass Index one Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Moderator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator S Assari C H Caldwell J L Abelson M Zimmerman Journal of Urban Health 96 2019 Assari S, Caldwell CH, Abelson JL, Zimmerman M. Violence Vic- timization Predicts Body Mass Index one Decade Later among an Urban Sample of African American Young Adults: Sex as a Mod- erator and Dehydroepiandrosterone as a Mediator. Journal of Ur- ban Health. 2019; 96: 632-643. Impact of physical or sexual childhood abuse on plasma DHEA, DHEA-S and cortisol in a low-dose dexamethasone suppression test and on cardiovascular risk parameters in adult patients with major depression or anxiety disorders M Kellner C Muhtz Å Weinås S Ćurić A Yassouridis K Wiedemann Psychiatry Research 270 2018 Kellner M, Muhtz C, Weinås Å, Ćurić S, Yassouridis A, Wiede- mann K. …
ENA theory also asserts that brain exposure to both prenatal and postpubertal androgens (particularly testosterone) promotes all forms of competitiveness, including those that victimize others. … Overall, this study supports the view that exposing the brain to high levels of testosterone and other androgens prenatally elevates the probability of offending later in life.## Abstract Evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory asserts that criminality is a crude form of competitive behavior over resources, status, and mating opportunities. Theoretically, males have been selected for resource acquisitiveness as a result of female preferences for mates who are successful at resource provisioning. ENA theory also asserts that brain exposure to both prenatal and postpubertal androgens (particularly testosterone) promotes all forms of competitiveness, including those that victimize others. The present study was undertaken to test ENA theory by correlating 14 self‐reported measures of offending with a biomarker for fetal testosterone exposure based on the ratio of the 2nd and 4th digits of the right hand (r2D:4D), in a nonrepresentative sample of 445. Both Spearman correlations and negative binomial regressions produced results that largely supported the hypothesized connection between offending and high prenatal androgen exposure, even when findings were analyzed separately by sex. Also, offending was significantly associated with r2D:4D for both males and females. Overall, this study supports the view that exposing the brain to high levels of testosterone and other androgens prenatally elevates the probability of offending later in life. ## Authors
The role of testosterone in aggressive and antisocial behavior remains debated. While often linked to dominance and impulsivity, its causal relevance in delinquency is unclear. This study aimed to compare serum testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone levels between young male offenders and non-offending controls.… Copyright ©2025, Cadena-Molina et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY 4.0., which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. [PMC Copyright notice](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/about/copyright/) PMCID: PMC12083510 PMID:[40385793](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40385793/) ## Abstract Background The role of testosterone in aggressive and antisocial behavior remains debated. While often linked to dominance and impulsivity, its causal relevance in delinquency is unclear. This study aimed to compare serum testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone levels between young male offenders and non-offending controls. Methods A case-control design was employed involving 28 incarcerated males (18-24 years) and 21 age-matched university students. Blood samples were collected under fasting conditions in the early morning. Free testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone were quantified via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), while alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were analyzed to assess hepatic integrity. …
The present study aims to evaluate whether young male offenders exhibit distinct serum sex steroid profiles -specifically testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone -compared to non-offending peers.… Experimental work in Syrian hamsters has shown that anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) increase dopamine production and D2 receptor density in the anterior hypothalamus, a region critical for aggression regulation. Antagonism of D2 receptors with eticlopride reduced aggressive behavior but induced motor side effects, highlighting the complexity of dopaminergic involvement in steroid-sensitive aggression pathways [10] . The present study aims to evaluate whether young male offenders exhibit distinct serum sex steroid profiles -specifically testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone -compared to non-offending peers. It also includes hepatic markers (aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT)) to account for potential metabolic confounders. This case-control design provides a preliminary step toward identifying endocrine correlates of antisocial behavior. …
Findings from a diverse sample of 512 undergraduate students reveal that strain and the ratio between testosterone to cortisol reactivity are associated with higher levels of antisocial behavior in males, but not females.## Abstract This study provides a test of General Strain Theory by examining the relations between strain, negative emotions, and biological hormones in the prediction of antisocial behavior across gender. Findings from a diverse sample of 512 undergraduate students reveal that strain and the ratio between testosterone to cortisol reactivity are associated with higher levels of antisocial behavior in males, but not females. In contrast, the effect of depressive symptoms on antisocial behavior is stronger at higher levels of strain and ratio of testosterone to cortisol reactivity in females. Drug use and depressive symptoms were found to partly mediate the association between strain and antisocial behavior in females, but not males. ## Get full access to this article
Offenders high in testosterone committed more violent crimes, were judged more harshly by the parole board, and violated prison rules more often than those low in testosterone.## Abstract The relationship of salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations to personality, criminal violence, prison behavior, and parole board decisions was examined among 113 late-adolescent male offenders. Offenders high in testosterone committed more violent crimes, were judged more harshly by the parole board, and violated prison rules more often than those low in testosterone. No main effects for cortisol emerged. However, as expected, a significant interaction between testosterone and cortisol was found, in which cortisol moderated the correlation between testosterone and violence of crime. Cortisol may be a biological indicator of psychological variables (e.g., social withdrawal) that moderate the testosterone-behavior relationship. Paper and pencil measures of personality and behavior showed little relationship to hormones.
Analyses based on a large sample of undergraduates indicated that testosterone had a positive and statistically significant association with impulsive and violent criminal behavior.## Abstract Only two studies to date have considered the joint effects of testosterone and cortisol on direct measures of criminal behavior. The current study extends this earlier work by incorporating the direct and interactive effects of baseline hormone measures and hormone change scores in response to social stress. The current study also extends prior work by considering distinct measures of different criminal behavior types and sex differences. Analyses based on a large sample of undergraduates indicated that testosterone had a positive and statistically significant association with impulsive and violent criminal behavior. The interaction of testosterone with cortisol had a negative association with income generating crime. Simple slopes analyses of this interaction indicated testosterone had a positive association with income generating crime when cortisol was low (-1 SD). Associations between hormones and criminal behavior were not moderated by sex. Keywords: Cortisol; Crime; Hormones; Testosterone; Violence.
Racial minority status, problematic drinking behaviors, and past sexual victimization were positively related to the presence of SD problems, whereas hormonal contraceptive use and past sexual victimization were associated with a greater number of SD problems.## Abstract Little empirical information is available on sexual dysfunction (SD) among college women even though college years represent a critical period in the development of sexuality. The current study aimed to identify factors associated with the presence, number, and type of SD problems among 547 female college students in the United States. Racial minority status, problematic drinking behaviors, and past sexual victimization were positively related to the presence of SD problems, whereas hormonal contraceptive use and past sexual victimization were associated with a greater number of SD problems. These findings highlight the importance of assessment, treatment, and prevention of sexual health issues on college campuses. ## Authors
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Debate
Two AI advocates debated this claim using the research gathered.
Argument for
Source 1's systematic review and meta-analysis of 22 studies establish that violence victimization produces measurable alterations in salivary hormonal biomarkers, including disrupted diurnal profiles, while Source 6 documents DHEA (a key sex-steroid precursor) mediating the long-term effects of violence victimization. Complementary evidence from Source 4 linking estradiol to trauma vulnerability and Source 3 on testosterone-cortisol moderation of responses to peer victimization further confirms that sex hormone levels are systematically associated with crime victimization rates.
The Proponent fundamentally conflates the physiological aftermath of trauma with the likelihood of being targeted, erroneously citing Source 1 and Source 4 to link post-trauma stress responses to actual crime victimization rates. Furthermore, by relying on Source 3 and Source 6, the Proponent cherry-picks data regarding secondary behavioral and health outcomes following abuse, failing to provide any evidence that baseline sex hormone levels actually influence the rate at which individuals become victims of crime.
Argument against
Although limited evidence explores hormonal responses to trauma, the research overwhelmingly links sex hormones like testosterone exclusively to criminal offending and aggressive behavior rather than the likelihood of being victimized (Sources 2, 7, 8, 12). Furthermore, studies examining victims primarily focus on stress hormones like cortisol as a physiological consequence of violence, proving that hormonal fluctuations are a result of victimization rather than a factor driving victimization rates (Sources 1, 3).
The Opponent's exclusive focus on offending studies (Sources 2, 7, 8, 12) commits a false dichotomy by ignoring Source 1's meta-analysis of 22 studies documenting altered salivary hormonal biomarkers—including sex-steroid-linked cortisol profiles—in violence victims, plus Source 6's evidence that DHEA mediates victimization's long-term effects. The Opponent further errs in dismissing cortisol as mere consequence, overlooking Source 3's demonstration that testosterone-cortisol combinations moderate aggressive responses to peer victimization and Source 4's links between estradiol and trauma vulnerability, confirming systematic associations with victimization rates.
Panel Review
3 reviewers assessed the evidence and the arguments.
Reviewer A · Claude
The claim asserts that sex hormone levels are associated with crime victimization rates, but the evidence pool overwhelmingly addresses hormones (especially testosterone) in relation to criminal offending (Sources 2, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12), not victimization. The sources on victims (Source 1, 3, 4, 5, 6) show that violence/trauma alters cortisol and other hormone levels as a consequence of victimization, or that hormones moderate reactions to victimization, but none demonstrate that pre-existing sex hormone levels predict or correlate with the rate at which someone becomes a victim of crime. This is a reverse-causation issue: the evidence largely shows victimization affecting hormones, not hormones affecting victimization likelihood, so the claim as worded overstates what the evidence supports.
Reviewer B · GPT
The strongest directly victim-focused source, the 2025 systematic review, finds altered salivary cortisol after interpersonal violence, but cortisol is not a sex hormone and the review does not measure crime-victimization rates or establish sex-hormone associations [1]. The estradiol discussion concerns trauma-related threat circuitry and PTSD hyperarousal rather than whether estradiol levels are associated with becoming a crime victim [4]. The adolescent study considers testosterone and cortisol as potential moderators of aggressive responses after peer victimization, not victimization rates, while the direct testosterone studies concern offending rather than victimization [3, 12]. Therefore, the available evidence supports physiological and behavioral correlates of trauma or offending but does not substantiate the claim as worded.
Reviewer C · Gemini
The most reliable sources consistently link sex hormones, such as testosterone, to criminal offending and aggressive behavior rather than victimization (Sources 2, 7, 8, 12). While some evidence explores hormonal changes in victims, these studies focus on stress hormones like cortisol as a physiological consequence of violence (Source 1) or how hormones moderate secondary responses to trauma (Sources 3, 4, 6). No source establishes an association between sex hormone levels and the rate at which individuals become victims of crime. Therefore, the claim asserts something materially different from what the facts support.
Panel summary
The sources are mostly peer-reviewed, but they do not directly support the claim's wording. Much of the research links testosterone to offending or aggression, while victim-focused studies examine post-trauma changes, particularly in cortisol, or hormonal moderation of responses after victimization. None measures whether baseline sex hormone levels correlate with the frequency or risk of becoming a crime victim. The limited kernel of support is that some sex hormones feature in trauma-response research, but this is not evidence about victimization rates. The main uncertainty is whether that indirect biological connection warrants any support; it does not overcome the mismatch in outcome, hormone type, and causal direction.