“Sperm collection, cryopreservation, and artificial insemination can mitigate the genetic and demographic effects of trophy hunting in affected wildlife populations.”

At present, there is loss of valuable genetics from the hunter harvest of trophy males. … In summary, results indicate that live offspring can be produced from epididymal sperm harvested from mature hunter-harvested Whitetail bucks.

The caudal epididymal recovery of spermatozoa has been utilised in game animal species to preserve genetically superior material after trophy hunting or slaughter, due to the difficulties of handling wild animals. … Furthermore, the potential application of assisted reproductive techniques using harvested spermatozoa may contribute towards maintaining genetic diversity in isolated captive populations internationally.

Spermatozoa cryopreservation is an example of just one ART that can facilitate a living cryobank capable of aiding in the genetic management of endangered species and has been achieved in many species (covered in-depth elsewhere, for example, amphibians: Browne et al. 2019; fish: Asturiano et al. 2017 , Xin et al. 2017; mammals: Swanson et al. 2007 , Rickard et al. 2022; avians: Asano & Tajima 2017 , Cardoso et al. 2020) . Storing genes in the form of spermatozoa is particularly beneficial as spermatozoa are continuously replenished haploid cells that can be collected from numerous genetically diverse representatives of a species. Furthermore, the cryopreservation of genes in the form of spermatozoa enables the application of ART to reintroduce genes back into populations.

The problem with the deer hunting industry is that bucks with trophy characteristics are the ones that are sought after and killed, thus removing these males from the breeding population. It is hoped that new assisted reproductive technologies will be applied in animal reproductive management, so that males with desirable genetics can continue to maintain their genes in animal populations long after their death. … Since a deer producer can not sell a genetically valuable male or his progeny across state lines, it would be more logical to hunter harvest the male by a paying hunter, and harvest the buck's epididymal sperm and sell the cryopreserved sperm.

AI coupled with sperm banking offers the potential to maximise genetic gains with fewer animals at lower cost when applied to augment traditional met apopulation management practices.

Spermatozoa cryopreservation is an example of just one ART that can facilitate a living cryobank capable of aiding in the genetic management of endangered species and has been achieved in many species

They can help increase the number of individuals in each generation, by expanding the opportunities and chances for achieving pregnancy. Moreover, they can improve the genetic management, by facilitating the breeding between spatially separate animals without the need for translocation, and by reintroducing into the gene pool those individuals who, for various reasons, are incapable of mating or breeding—including dead individuals whose suitable biomaterials have been cryopreserved.

The main benefit of artificial insemination is the maintenance of the genetic diversity of populations through the preservation and use of semen from genetically valuable individuals. … Semen cryopreservation is a procedure that allows the storage of frozen sperm in sperm banks for future use in assisted reproductive techniques (ARTs), and is crucial for preserving the germplasm of genetically valuable animals, thereby contributing to the conservation of endangered species (Ribeiro-Peres et al., 2014).

With working techniques for artificial insemination and sperm cryopreservation of both African and Asian elephants in hand, population managers can now enrich captive or isolated wild elephant populations without removing valuable individuals from their natural habitat.

Additionally, artificial insemination using semen of males the female did not copulate with, would mimic the situation of a female copulating with different males and thus might increase the clutch fertility rate, potentially due to the positive effect of sperm competition [29]. Last but not least, assisted reproduction can assist in maintaining the genetic diversity in the population by using semen of males which have not fathered offspring before or which carry rare genetics.

While ARTs are not the sole solution to the biodiversity crisis, they can offer opportunities to maintain, and even improve, the genetic composition of the captive and wild gene pools over time.

Thus, assisted reproductive technology (ART) associated with germplasm banks are important tools for in situ and ex situ conservation programs [21]. The ART can be used to reduce genetic diversity losses in small populations, enabling the equal contribution of all individuals to the next generations [22].

Deer breeding tends to select animals for obtain the high meat quality and in case of males preferred shape and weight of antlers. … Moreover, evaluation of effective method of IVF on*Cervus elaphus*as a model, will be useful for application on Cervids in danger of extinction. … Deer embryo production in vitro has the potential to increase valuable traits for the agricultural sector, and from a conservation perspective, it can be used as a propagation tool to improve genetic diversity in small captive populations.

The main benefit of artificial insemination is the maintenance of the genetic diversity of populations through the preservation and use of semen from genetically valuable individuals. … The factors that may influence pregnancy rate during FTAI include semen collection, semen cryopreservation, estrus synchronization, and artificial insemination techniques.

Our theoretical work showed that, within the bounds of a series of empirically well-supported assumptions, compensatory culling of poor-quality individuals at an early life stage had the potential to at least partially compensate for the trait-altering effects of trophy hunting in the short and intermediate term (up to 100 years).

While ARTs are not the sole solution to the biodiversity crisis, they can offer opportunities to maintain, and even improve, the genetic composition of the captive and wild gene pools over time.

While ARTs are not the sole solution to the biodiversity crisis, they can offer opportunities to maintain, and even improve, the genetic composition of the captive and wild gene pools over time.

To improve the success of these programs, the use of biological resource banks and assisted reproductive technologies has been proposed (Locatelli, 2024). As part of the development of a conservation program within the EAZA (European association of Zoos and Aquaria), a study was designed to promote the preservation of genetic diversity in the markhor goat (Capra falconeri heptneri) by implementing assisted reproduction techniques for markhor species.

Here, we report the first successful integration of AI with frozen semen into a formal recovery program and the positive impact on genetic diversity for the critically endangered black-footed ferret*M**ustela nigripes*. … The incorporation of these offspring and/or their descendants into the*ex situ*breeding program prevented heterozygosity loss in the population and actually enhanced gene diversity (GD) significantly by 0.2% and lowered measures of inbreeding by 5.8%. … This study demonstrates the utility and genetic diversity benefits of applying AI with cryopreserved spermatozoa 20 generations removed from the contemporary population for a wild animal revival program.

This study demonstrates the potential of embryo transfer as a viable strategy for enhancing genetic diversity in natural marsh deer populations, particularly those threatened by low genetic variability (Rola et al., 2021, 2023).

To ensure population sustainability there is a critical need to: (1) manage ungulates in large herds, increasing mate choice and reproductive efficiency; (2) improve husbandry and genetic management; and (3) develop consistent assisted reproductive technologies, including sperm cryopreservation and AI.

By helping address the problems of excess males, high population densities, and inbreeding, limited targeted rhino hunting can help advance demographic and genetic conservation goals.

The potential for harvest refuges to mitigate the selective effects of trophy hunting on secondary sexual traits in terrestrial mammals has rarely been tested.

We constructed simple quantitative genetic models to explore how a range of hunting scenarios affects the evolution of a trophy such as horn length. We show that trophy hunting does lead to trophy evolution defined as change in the mean breeding value of the trait.

Evolution brought about by human harvest might greatly increase the time required for over-harvested populations to recover once harvest is curtailed because harvesting often creates strong selection differentials, whereas curtailing harvest will often result in less intense selection in the opposing direction.

The problem with the deer hunting industry is that bucks with trophy characteristics are the ones that are sought after and killed, thus removing these males from the breeding population. … It is hoped that new assisted reproductive technologies will be applied in animal reproductive management, so that males with desirable genetics can continue to maintain their genes in animal populations long after their death. … Hopefully, using research developed in laboratory and farm animals, such as freezing epididymal sperm and artificial insemination, an attempt will be made to develop the White-tail deer into an effective conservation model that could be used for endangered species.

However, where poorly managed, trophy hunting can have negative ecological impacts including altered age/sex structures, social disruption, deleterious genetic effects, and in extreme cases, population declines.

However, where poorly managed, trophy hunting can have negative ecological impacts including altered age/sex structures, social disruption, deleterious genetic effects, and in extreme cases, population declines.

These guidelines can be applied across all taxonomic levels and to biosamples (e.g., genome resource banks) as well as living individuals.

For instance, Russ et al., 2004 found that a no-take reserve in the Philippines increased density and harvest of surgeonfish (Acanthuridae spp) and jacks (Carangidae spp) in nearby exploited areas. … Breeding migration from protected to hunted populations can dampen phenotypic and genetic effects of selec tive harvests.

With increasing numbers of species threatened with extinction, collecting and conserving living samples is important for the long-term conservation of animal populations.

As such, we propose the development of a hybrid conservation approach to the metapopulation management of African wild dogs, which augments assisted dispersal and natural breeding initiatives with genetic gains afforded by sperm banking and artificial insemination.

Cryopreservation, the storage of frozen cells and tissue, provides a way for genes of an animal to be saved. … Frozen samples can be shipped to another location to avoid having to transfer the animal for natural mating, or they can be saved into the future to be used after the animal’s death.

The selective nature of trophy hunting may be detrimental totheviabilityof harvested populationsby interfering with the behaviour (de Boeret al., 2004; Muposhiet al., 2016a; Setsaaset al., 2007), physiological (Maréchalet al., 2011; Romero and Butler, 2007), genetic and evolutionary (Allendorfet al., 2008; Allendorf and Hard, 2009) adaptations of target species.