“Animal species subject to trophy hunting experience greater behavioral and physiological stress than other wildlife populations.”

We found that FGM levels-a measure of physiological stress-were higher in both impala and greater kudu in RGR, where trophy hunting is allowed, compared to animals residing RNP indicating the potential negative impacts of trophy hunting on the wildlife stress response.

Trophy hunting causes more disturbance to wild mammals than does game viewing and photographic tourism activities, which have comparatively less disturbance on wild mammal behaviour and stress level (Allendorf & Hard, 2009; Hunninck et al., 2017; Lunde et al., 2016; Marealle & Røskaft, submitted; Setsaas et al., 2007) .

Contrary to our expectations, fecal GCMs did not increase with hunting pressure (number of elk harvested or number of days into the hunting season) in our study system. … Hunting pressure does not appear to elevate stress as indicated through fecal GCMs.

We found that FGM levels—a measure of physiological stress—were higher in both impala and greater kudu in RGR, where trophy hunting is allowed, compared to animals residing RNP indicating the potential negative impacts of trophy hunting on the wildlife stress response.

Similarly, African elephants residing in more disturbed sites outside protected areas (94) and exposed to poaching (79), hunting (84) and high tourist numbers (104) exhibited higher GCs, the latter of which resulted in elephants displaying avoidance behaviours towards vehicles (109) (Table 2 , Fig. 6 ).

Blue Sheep in the DHR had higher levels of vigilance than sheep in the ACA (10 % versus 8 % of their time respectively). … Sheep in the DHR were also much more difficult to approach on foot, with Blue Sheep groups in the DHR having an average flight initiation distance of 96 +/- 7 m versus 39 +/- 3 m for the ACA, and subsequently moving much greater distances when disturbed (flight movement distance in the DHR versus ACA: 79 +/- 3 m versus 26 +/- 2 m respectively).

The results reveal that in the dry season, wildlife in the Nyakasanga section exhibited significantly longer FIDs than those in the Rifa section ( P = 0.010). … The chi-square test indicates that wildlife vigilance responses were spatially variable between the Nyakasanga and Rifa sections (χ² = 13.25, df = 6, P < 0.001).

We concluded that trophy hunting increased perceived risk of wild ungulates in closed hunting areas, whereas ungulates in non-hunting areas are less responsive and somehow habituated to human presence. … Research aimed at integrating behavioural responses with physiological aspects of target species should be promoted to ensure that managers are able to deal with the behavioural trade-offs of trophy hunting at local and regional scale.

Overall, our results suggest an influence of hunting activities on the physiological stress in red deer. … In addition, Bryan et al. [66] also documented higher hair cortisol levels in heavily hunted wolves (Canis lupus) than in wolves with lower hunting pressure.

Stalking hunts most likely do not impact the welfare of big game. There is probably habituation to long-term stress in the animals studied.

Stalking hunts most likely do not impact the welfare of big game. There is probably habituation to long-term stress in the animals studied.

In response to short duration hunting events, wildlife often exhibit short-term behavioural responses; however, corresponding physiological responses have not been measured. … Despite a consistent behavioural response, we are not aware of any study documenting a physiological stress response to hunting. … In contrast, we hypothesize that stress in elephants, which have a complex social system, might be heavily influenced by psychosocial stressors that result from hunting activity.

Anthropogenic disturbances were classified into 6 distinct categories: habitat loss, habitat degradation, ongoing logging, hunting, tourism, and other human activities. … Habitat loss and hunting were overall associated with increased GC concentrations, whereas the cumulative effects of the other disturbances were not statistically significant.

A wide range of species from different taxonomic groups respond to human disturbance by increasing their levels of GC hormones, yet the magnitude and direction of the effect depend not only on the type of disturbance but also on its duration and intensity.

Still, it is important to acknowledge that many situations described in the literature, i.e. reindeer handling, roe deer captures and red deer yarding, seem even more stressful, beside vehicle collisions, than most hunting methods.

However, where poorly managed, trophy hunting can have negative ecological impacts including altered age/sex structures, social disruption, deleterious genetic effects, and in extreme cases, population declines.

There is increasing acknowledgement of the impact of trophy hunting on social behaviour, space use and population status of hunted species.

However, there are limited studies on the impact of tourism activities especially trophy hunting on both anxiety and physiological stress of wildlife subjected to elevated hunting levels (Maréchal et al., 2011).

In summary, the cortisol concentration in the hair of male European roe deer was significantly higher in animals obtained at the end of the stalking hunting season. … Disturbing animals during the hunting season may be one of the factors that generates chronic stress in them, especially if the negative stimulus is repeated over a longer period of time. However, it may also be an effect of the season, but it did not correlate with the carcass mass or the age of the animals.

As predicted, wolves from heavily hunted populations had higher stress and reproductive hormone levels which probably reflect a number of environmental conditions including human caused mortality.

Studies continue to demonstrate strong population impacts on lions from trophy hunting, ranging from male depletion, skewed sex ratios, elevated levels of infanticide, and population decline [12,15,20–28], but isolating the effects of trophy hunting from other sources of mortality, particularly in lion populations traversing gradients of protection has been difficult [13].

We found a 36% increase in GCCs due to human disturbance in mammals (lnRRΔ = 0.304), but no evidence of a generalizable effect for birds, non-avian reptiles and amphibians.

Some authors find that the stress response of the animal organism depends on the type of hunting [11,55]. … The results obtained in the present study on red deer harvested during stalking hunts confirm previous reports showing that CORT levels do not depend on the age and sex of animals [5,12,64,65,66,67,68]. It could indicate that, regardless of age or sex, being hunted is a stressful experience for red deer.

Elevated hunting pressure is reported to influence the flight and foraging behaviour of wildlife thus compromising fitness of hunted species. … Selective harvesting through trophy hunted is attributed to the decline in desirable phenotypic traits and increased physiological stress in most hunted species. … chronic stress and the corresponding elevated GC concentrations due to high hunting pressure may have deleterious effects on fitness and survival of targeted wildlife species

The inconclusive effects on GCs and additional assessment parameter urges for further validation of techniques and welfare proxies.

Large herbivores generally thrived as well, or even better, in the hunting areas than in the national park.

We found that lethal human activities (e.g., hunting) cause significant behavioural changes, with targeted species increasing vigilance and reducing foraging in affected areas.

We found that FGM levels—a measure of physiological stress—were higher in both impala and greater kudu in RGR, where trophy hunting is allowed, compared to animals residing RNP indicating the potential negative impacts of trophy hunting on the wildlife stress response.

Trophy hunting has severe consequences on wild animals' behaviors, which in return has implications for affecting wildlife populations. … The high FIDs of elands in both vegetation covers in this study could suggest that the animals are sensitized by the human presence from years of trophy hunting and flee at great distances. … most hunted animal species have become more vigilant toward encounters with humans.

But if the population is already stressed by a changing environment, then removing even a small percentage of the best males can lead to extinction.

It has been shown that hunting is capable of causing an intense stress response in wildlife, which can significantly affect animal welfare.

The Selous Game Reserve is a protected area in Tanzania that has been subjected to commercial trophy hunting for decades, and information about the effects of trophy hunting on animals’ welfare is still scarce.